Koto
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Japanese 13-stringed koto
The
koto (
箏) is a traditional
Japanese stringed musical instrument, similar to the Chinese
guzheng, the Mongolian
yatga, the Korean
gayageum and the Vietnamese
đàn tranh. The koto is the national instrument of Japan.
[1] Koto are about 180 centimetres (71 in) length, and made from
kiri wood (
Paulownia tomentosa). They have 13 strings that are strung over 13 movable
bridges
along the width of the instrument. Players can adjust the string
pitches by moving these bridges before playing, and use three finger
picks (on thumb, index finger, and middle finger) to pluck the strings.
Name
The character for
koto is
箏, although
琴 is often used, but 琴 usually refers to another instrument, the
kin. 箏, is also read as
sō in certain contexts.
History
The ancestor of the koto was the Chinese instrument
guzheng[2][3] and was first introduced to Japan from China in the 7th and 8th century.
[4]
The first known version had five strings, which eventually increased to
seven strings. (It had twelve strings when it was introduced to Japan
in the early
Nara Period
(710–784) and increased to thirteen strings). This particular
instrument is known throughout Asia but in different forms: the Japanese
koto, which is a distant relative to the Chinese
zheng, the Korean
gayageum, and the Vietnamese
dan tranh[citation needed].
This variety of instrument came in two basic forms, a zither that had
bridges and zithers without bridges. The type that was most known in
China was the
qin[citation needed], similar in design to many other instruments in Asia.
When the koto was first imported to Japan, the native word
koto was a generic term for any and all Japanese stringed instruments. Over time the definition of
koto could not describe the wide variety of these stringed instruments and so the meanings changed. The azumagoto or
yamatogoto was called the wagon, the kin no koto was called the
kin, and the sau no koto (sau being an older pronunciation of 箏) was called the sō or koto.
The modern koto originates from the gakusō used in Japanese court
music. It was a popular instrument among the wealthy; the instrument
koto was considered a romantic one. Some literary and historical records
indicate that solo pieces for koto existed centuries before sōkyoku,
the music of the solo koto genre, was established. According to
Japanese literature, the koto was used as imagery and other extra music significance. In one part of "The Tales of Genji (
Genji monogatari)",
Genji falls deeply in love with a mysterious woman, who he has never
seen before, after he hears her playing koto from a distance.
The history of the koto in Japan dates back to the 16th Century. At
this time a Buddhist priest by the name of Kenjun (1547–1636), who lived
in northern
Kyūshū, began to compose for the koto, calling the style "tsukushi goto".
Perhaps the most important influence on the development of koto was
Yatsuhashi Kengyo
(1614–1685). He was a gifted blind musician from Kyoto who changed the
limited selection of six songs to a brand new style of koto music which
he called kumi uta. Yatsuhashi changed the Tsukushi goto tunings, which
were based on gagaku ways of tuning; and with this change, a new style
of koto was born. Yatsuhashi Kengyo is now known as the "Father of
Modern Koto".
Masayo Ishigure playing a 13-string koto
The Japanese developments in the bridgeless zithers include the one-stringed koto (
ichigenkin)
and two-stringed koto (nigenkin or yakumo goto) around the 1920s, Goro
Morita created a new version of the two-stringed goto. On this goto, one
would push down buttons above the metal strings like the western
autoharp. It was named the taisho goto after the Taisho Era.
At the beginning of the
Meiji Period (1868–1912), western music was introduced to Japan.
Michio Miyagi
(1894–1956), a blind composer, innovator, and performer, is considered
to have been the first Japanese composer to combine western music and
traditional koto music. Miyagi is largely regarded as being responsible
for keeping the koto alive when traditional Japanese arts were being
forgotten and replaced by Westernization. He wrote over 300 new works
for the instrument before his death in a train accident at the age of
62. He also invented the popular 17 string bass koto, created new
playing techniques, advanced traditional forms, and most importantly
increased the koto's popularity. He performed abroad and by 1928 his
piece for koto and
shakuhachi,
Haru no Umi (Spring Sea) had been transcribed for numerous instruments. Haru no Umi is even played to welcome each
New Year in Japan.
Since Miyagi's time, many composers such as
Tadao Sawai (1937–1997) have written and performed works that continue to advance the instrument. Sawai's widow
Kazue Sawai,
who as a child was Miyagi's favored disciple, has been the largest
driving force behind the internationalization and modernization of the
koto. Her arrangement of composer
John Cage's prepared piano duet "
Three Dances" for four prepared bass koto was a landmark in the modern era of koto music.
Construction
A koto is typically made of
Paulownia
wood. The treatment of the wood before making the koto varies
tremendously: one koto maker seasons the wood for perhaps a year on the
roof of the house. Some wood may have very little treatment. Kotos may
or may not be adorned, some adornments include inlays of ivory and
ebony, tortoise shell, metal figures, etc.
The bridges (Ji) used to be made of ivory, but nowadays are typically
made of plastic, and occasionally made of wood. For some very low
notes, there are small bridges made, as well as specialty bridges with
three different heights, depending on the need of the tuning. When a
small bridge is unavailable for some very low notes, some players may,
as an emergency measure, use a bridge upside down. Of course, such an
arrangement is unstable, and the bridge would have a tendency to fall
down. Bridges have been known to break during playing, and with some
older instruments which have the surface where the bridges rest being
worn due to much use, the bridges may fall during playing, especially
when pressing strings. There are, of course, various sorts of patch
materials sold to fill the holes which cause the legs of a bridge to
rest on an unstable area.
The strings are made from a variety of materials. Various types of
plastic strings are popular. Silk strings are still made. Silk strings
are usually yellow in color, but they cost more and are not as durable,
but claimed to be more musical. The strings are tied with a
half hitch
to a roll of paper or cardboard, about the size of a cigarette butt,
strung through the holes at the head of the koto, threaded through the
holes at the back, tightened, and tied with a special knot. Strings can
be tightened by a special machine, but often are tightened by hand, and
then tied. One can tighten by pulling the string from behind, or sitting
at the side of the koto, although the latter is much harder and
requires much arm strength. Some instruments may have tuning pins (like a
piano) installed, to make tuning easier.
For every part of the koto there is a traditional name which connects
with the opinion that the body of a koto resembles that of a
dragon.
The name for the top is therefore "Dragonshell" (Ryuko/竜甲)(the asian
dragon is believed to have a shell like a turtle), the lower part is
called the "Dragonstomach" (Ryuhara/竜腹), one end of the koto, noticable
because of the removeable colorful fabricshell, is known as the
"Dragonhead". The "Dragonhead" consists of the "Dragonhorns"
(Ryukaku/竜角), "Dragontongue" (Ryushita/竜舌) and so on. The lower part of
the koto implies the "Dragontail" and the Heavens Seat (Tenmiyo/天御代) or
Cloudhorns (Kumokaku/雲角), a description of the wooden pillow for the
strings.
Koto today
Koto concert at Himejijo kangetsukai in 2009
Michiyo Yagi playing a 21-string koto
The influence of Western pop music has made the koto less prominent
in Japan, although it is still developing as an instrument. The
17-string bass koto, called
jūshichi-gen
in Japanese, has become more prominent over the years since its
development by Michio Miyagi. There are also 20-string, 21-string, and
25-string kotos. Works are being written for 20- and 25-stringed kotos
and
17-string bass kotos, and a new generation of players such as Japanese master
Kazue Sawai, her students including
Michiyo Yagi, and American performer
Reiko Obata, are finding places for the koto in today's
jazz,
experimental music and even
pop. The members of the band
Rin' are popular
jūshichi-gen players in the modern (pop/rock) music scene.
Well-known solo performers outside of Japan include koto master and award-winning recording artist
Elizabeth Falconer, who also studied for a decade at the esteemed Sawai Koto School in Tokyo, as well as koto master
Linda Kako Caplan, Canadian daishihan (grandmaster) and a member of Fukuoka's Chikushi Koto School for over two decades. Another Sawai disciple,
Masayo Ishigure, holds down a school in
New York City.
Yukiko Matsuyama
leads her KotoYuki band in Los Angeles. Her compositions blend the
timbres of World Music with her native Japanese culture. She performed
on the Grammy winning album
Miho: Journey to the Mountain by the
Paul Winter Consort garnering additional exposure to Western audiences for the instrument.
In March, 2010 the koto received widespread international attention
when a video linked by the Grammy Award-winning hard rock band
Tool on its website became a viral hit. The video showed Tokyo-based ensemble
Soemon playing member
Brett Larner's arrangement of the Tool song "
Lateralus" for six koto and two bass koto. Larner had previously played koto with
John Fahey,
Jim O'Rourke and members of indie rock groups including
Camper Van Beethoven,
Deerhoof,
Jackie O Motherfucker and
Mr. Bungle.
In older pop and rock music,
David Bowie used a koto in the instrumental piece "
Moss Garden" on his album
"Heroes". The multi-instrumentalist, founder and former
The Rolling Stones guitarist
Brian Jones played koto in the song
Take It Or Leave, on the album
Aftermath, 1966.
Paul Gilbert, a popular
guitar virtuosoist, recorded his wife, Emi playing the koto on his song "Koto Girl" from the album
Alligator Farm. Rock band
Kagrra,
are well known for using traditional Japanese musical instruments in
many of their songs, an example being "Utakata" (うたかた), a song in which
the koto has a prominent place.
Winston Tong, singer with
Tuxedomoon, uses it on his 15-minute song, "The Hunger" from his debut solo album
Theoretically Chinese. The
rock band
Queen used a (toy) koto in "
The Prophet's Song" on their 1975 album
A Night at the Opera.
Dr. Dre's 1999 album
Chronic 2001 prominently features a synthesized koto on two of its tracks - "
Still D.R.E." and "The Message".
David Horvitz played the instrument in a contemporary indie rock scene setting on
Xiu Xiu's album,
The Air Force.
The influence of the koto on Western music is also evident in jazz.
The "in-sen" scale, a five note scale, was first introduced to jazz by
John Coltrane and
McCoy Tyner[citation needed] (another koto player) and is based on the tuning of the koto.
Jazz pianist Dave Brubeck composed "Koto Song" that, while not featuring the koto itself, is played to allow the piano to emulate its sound.
June Kuramoto of the jazz fusion group
Hiroshima was one of the first koto performers to popularize the koto in a non-traditional fusion style.
Reiko Obata,
founder of East West Jazz band, is the first to perform and record an
album of jazz standards featuring koto. Obata also produced the
first-ever English language koto instructional DVD "You Can Play Koto".
Brett Larner was also active in jazz, recording a duo CD with saxophone legend and composer
Anthony Braxton.
Shamisen
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Tokyo
Geisha with Shamisen, circa 1870s
Kitagawa
Utamaro, "Flowers of Edo: Young Woman's Narrative Chanting to the Samisen", ca.
1880
A
Japanese man playing a shamisen while another sings
A shamisen accompanying traditional vocals, with a solo. (audio)
The
shamisen or
samisen (三味線?, literally "three flavor strings"), also called
sangen (三絃?, literally "three strings") is a three-stringed, Japanese
musical instrument played with a
plectrum called a
bachi. The
Japanese pronunciation is usually "shamisen" but sometimes "jamisen"
when used as a suffix (e.g.,
Tsugaru-jamisen).
[1] (In western Japan, and often in Edo-period sources, it is sometimes "samisen.")
Construction
The shamisen is a plucked stringed instrument. Its construction follows a model similar to that of a
guitar or a
banjo, employing a neck, and strings stretched across a resonating body. The neck of the shamisen is
fretless, and is slimmer than that of a guitar or banjo. The body, called the
dō (胴?), resembles a drum, having a hollow body that is taut front and back with skin, in the manner of a
banjo.
The skin used depends on the genre of music, and level of skill of the
player. Student shamisens often use dog skin, and sometimes plastic, as
they are cheaper to replace, and more durable. The shamisens of
professional players are often taut in cat skin, as it is more delicate
and expensive. It is said that the best sound quality is produced from a
shamisen bound in cat skin. In the past a special type of paper was
used and recently various types of plastics are being tried. On the skin
of some of the best shamisen, the position of the cat's nipples can
still be seen.
[2]
The
sao (棹?),
or neck of the shamisen is usually constructed such that it is divided
into three or four pieces that fit and lock together. Indeed, some
shamisens are made so that they can be easily disassembled and stowed to
save space. The neck of the shamisen is a singular rod that transcends
the drum-like body of the instrument, partially protruding at the other
side of the body, acting as an anchor for the strings. The pegs used to
wind the strings are long, thin and hexagonal in shape. They were
traditionally fashioned out of ivory, but as it has become a rare
resource, they have been recently fashioned out of other materials, such
as various kinds of wood and plastic.
The three strings are traditionally made of
silk,
or, more recently, nylon. They are taut between the pegs at the head of
the instrument, and a cloth tailpiece anchored at the end of the rod
which protrudes on the other side of the body. The strings are stretched
across the dō, raised from it by means of a bridge, or
koma (駒?),
which rests directly on the taught skin. The lowest string is
purposefully laid lower at the nut of the instrument, so that it buzzes,
creating a characteristic
timbre known as
sawari (somewhat reminiscent of the "buzzing" of a
sitar, which is called
jivari). The upper side of the dō (when on the player's lap) is almost always protected by a cover known as a
dō kake, and players often wear a little band of cloth on their left hand to facilitate sliding up and down the neck, known as a
yubikake. The head of the instrument may also be protected by a cover known as a
tenjin.
The material of the strings will depend on the skill of the player.
Traditionally, silk strings are used. However, silk breaks easily over a
short time, so this is reserved for professional performances. Students
often use nylon strings, which last longer than silk, and are also less
expensive.
Variations in construction and playing method
The heike shamisen compared with a medium-sized, or chuzao shamisen.
The construction of the shamisen varies in shape and size, depending
on the genre in which it is used. The bachi used will also be different
according to genre, if it is used at all. Shamisen are classified
according to size and genre. There are three basic sizes;
hosozao,
chuzao and
futozao. Examples of shamisen genres include
nagauta,
jiuta,
min'yo, and
tsugaru.
Hosozao
The
hosozao (細棹?, literally "thin neck"),
as its Japanese name implies, is the smallest kind of shamisen. The
body is small and particularly square-shaped, with a particularly thin
neck, which tapers away from the strings just as it approaches the body.
Generally, the
hosozao is used in
nagauta, the shorter and thinner neck facilitating the agile and virtuosic requirements of
Kabuki.
Hosozao shamisen especially built for nagauta ensembles is often simply
known as a "nagauta shamisen." The hosozao is also often used in
kouta, where it is plucked with the fingernails.
Chuzao
The
chuzao (中棹?, literally "middle neck") is a size up from the
hosozao.
As its name implies, the neck is slightly thicker. As the neck
approaches the body of the instrument, the distance between the strings
and the fingerboard is maintained, unlike the
hosozao, where it
tapers off. The fingerboard ends abruptly, and the rest of the neck
curves sharply into the body of the instrument. The pronunced curve that
occurs just before the neck meets the body is called
hatomune (鳩胸?, literally "pidgeon's breast"). The result is an extended fingerboard that gives the
chuzao a higher register than the
hosozao. The
chuzao is favored for
jiuta
style playing, with a broader, more mellow timbre. It is also an
"all-round" instrument that can actually be used across many genres.
Futozao
Finally,
futozao (太棹?, literally "fat neck") are used in the robust music of
Gidayubushi (the music of
Bunraku),
Joruri Min'yo, and
Tsugaru-jamisen. In these genres, a thicker neck facilitates the greater force used in playing the music of these styles. The
futozao
of Tsugaru-jamisen is quite a recent innovation, and is purposefully
constructed in a much larger size than traditional style shamisens, and
its neck is much longer and thicker than the traditional nagauta or
jiuta shamisens.
Variations in Bachi
The
bachi or plectrum used to play the shamisen also differ in
size, shape, and material from genre to genre. The bachi used for
nagauta shamisen are made out of three possible materials. Wood,
Plastic, and Ivory. While many nagauta teachers do not approve of the
use of plastic, if ivory is unattainable and wood is still out of price
range, plastic will suffice. Jiuta bachi are made entirely out of
plastic or ivory, or are plastic and tortoiseshell (bekko), or ivory and
tortoiseshell. Jiuta bachi are the easiest identified because they are
the longest, the widest and also have a deep indentation where the
tortoiseshell meets the handle. There are sometimes also jiuta bachi
that are made with buffalo horn handle. These however make no difference
in the sound whatsoever.
Gidayu
shamisen uses the heaviest and thickest bachi made, but it is not as
wide as nagauta bachi. The bachi used for tsugaru shamisen is the
smallest bachi. It is almost always tipped with tortoiseshell.
Pictured: Bachi for minyo, tsugaru and heike shamisens.
Other Variations
The width of the
koma, or bridge, and the material from which it
is made. Koma can be fashioned out of aged bamboo, ivory, ox-bone
(shari), rosewood, buffalo horn, kouki wood, any combination of the
above, or plastic for the student level. One must also know that Koma
come in many variations of height. The higher the Koma, the louder it
will be, and the harder it is to control rapid "sukui". The higher koma
are not really recommended for beginners. Please plan on buying
accordingly!
Koma Variations
Nagauta Koma
Heights Used: 3.2 - 3.6 Koma for Nagauta are fashioned out of only three
materials. Ivory, Bone, and Plastic. Ivory is the most expensive and
produces the most desirable sound and amplification, but due to its high
price tag is normally only used in performances. Ox-Bone or "Shari" is
the most popular koma for practice and with students who are performing.
Because of Ivory's volume and vibration it is normally used by a
teacher or "Tate-jamisen"; lead shamisen, so that the other players can
follow their tone and signals. Plastic is becoming increasingly harder
to find simply because it does not produce a desirable sound when
compared to Shari koma. Shari is not too much more expensive than
plastic, and most teachers openly express their displeasure with plastic
koma and require shari.
Jiuta Koma
Heights Used: 2.6 and 2.8 are the standard. (Other heights may be
available if specially ordered.) Koma for Jiuta are made out of a few
select materials. Yellow or Black Water Buffalo Horn known as "Suigyu"
are the standard for Jiuta. Black Water Buffalo Horn does not have a
significant sound difference when cut in the Jiuta koma style, and it is
far less popular. Yellow Suigyu is the most widely used for Jiuta style
shamisen, both in practice and performance. Plastic is available
because of the higher price tag of Suigyu. Many people believe that for
Jiuta, there is not a large sound difference between the two, but there
is a high change in vibration. Plastic makes a deader sound, which is
not the most favorable for Jiuta. Shari is used from time to time in
practice, but never for performance of Jiuta.
Tsugaru/Min'yo Koma
Heights Used:2.6, sometimes 2.7, and 2.8 Tsugaru Koma are very easily
identifiable due to their unique structure and use of two different
materials. Tsugaru Koma are very thin in width, and arent very high. The
base is usually made of either bamboo, smoked bamboo, or a wood of some
kind, while the top half in which the strings pass through can be made
of ivory, bone, or tortoiseshell. Because of the thickness of both the
strings and neck of the Futozao shamisen, the Tsugaru bridge in general
tends to be longer than the others. One should note not to confuse a
Gidayu (Highest Koma made, fashioned out of black buffalo horn) or
Kiyomoto koma (looks exactly like Nagauta koma but is much wider at the
base) with Tsugaru.
Shamisen used for traditional genres of Japanese music, such as
jiuta, kouta, and nagauta, adhere to very strict standards. Purists of
these genres demand that the shamisens be made of the correct wood, the
correct skin, and are played with the correct bachi. There is little
room for variation. The tsugaru-jamisen, on the other hand, has lent
itself to modern use, and is used in modern genres such as jazz and
rock. As a more open instrument, variations of it exist for show. The
tuning pegs, which are usually fashioned out of
ivory, and bachi which are fashioned from a combination of ivory and tortoise-shell for example, are sometimes made of
acrylic material to give the shamisen a more modern, flashy look. Recently,
avant-garde
inventors have developed a Tsugaru-jamisen with electric pickups to be
used with amplifiers, like the electric guitar: the electric
tsugaru-jamisen
[1] has been born.
The Heike (平家) shamisen is a shamisen particularly fashioned for the performance of the song
Heike Ondo, a folk tune originating from
Shimonoseki,
Yamaguchi Prefecture.
The neck of the Heike Shamisen is about half the length of most
shamisen, giving the instrument the high range needed to play Heike
Ondo. The use of more typical shamisens is possible, but they must be
properly adjusted with a
capo device to raise their pitch to make them suitable for use.
Variations in Playing
Pictured: Bachi, or plectrum for the shamisen.
In most genres the shamisen, the strings are plucked with a
bachi. The sound of a shamisen is similar in some respects to that of the American
banjo, in that the drum-like
dō, amplifies the sound of the strings. As in the
clawhammer
style of American banjo playing, the bachi is often used to strike both
string and skin, creating a highly percussive sound. In
kouta (小唄?, literally "small song") style shamisen, and occasionally in other genres, the shamisen is plucked with the fingers.
Tuning
The shamisen is played and tuned according to genre. The nomenclature of the nodes in an
octave
also varies according to genre. In truth, there are myriad styles of
Shamisen across Japan, and tunings, tonality and notation vary to some
degree. Three of the most commonly recognized tunings across all genres
are "honchoshi" (本調子), "ni agari" (二上がり), and "san sagari" (三下がり).
Honchoshi
"Honchoshi" means "home tuning" or "base tuning," and it is called so
because other tunings are considered derivatives of this one tuning. For
honchoshi, the first and third strings are tuned an octave
apart, while the middle string is tuned to the equivalent of a fourth,
in Western terms, from the 1st string. An example of this is D, G, D.
Ni Agari
"Ni agari" means "raised two" or "raised second," and this refers to the
fact that the pitch of the second string is raised (from honchoshi),
increasing the interval of the first and second strings to a fifth
(conversely decreasing the interval between the second and third strings
to a fourth). An example of this is D, A, D.
San Sagari
"San sagari," which means "lowered three" or "lowered third" refers to
tuning the shamisen to honchoshi and lowering the 3rd string (the string
with the highest pitch) down a whole step, so that now the instrument
is tuned in fourths, e.g. D, G, C.
Instead of having a set tuning, such as on a guitar (i.e. E, A, D, G,
B, E) or a violin (i.e. G, D, A, E), the shamisen is tuned according to
the register of the singer, or simply to the liking of the player. The
shamisen player can tune the shamisen to whatever register desired, so
long as the above conventions are followed.
Musical notation
Vertical shamisen tablature, read from right to left. Nodes for the 3rd
string are indicated by Arabic numerals, for the 2nd string by Chinese
numerals, and for the 1st string by Chinese numerals preceded by イ.
Horizontal shamisen tablature, read from left to right. Similar to
guitar tablature, three horizontal lines represent the strings of the
shamisen. Nodes are represented by Arabic numerals, and note
subdivisions are indicated by lines under them.
Music for the shamisen can be written in Western music notation, but is more often written in
tablature notation. While tunings might be similar across genres, the way in which the nodes on the neck of the instrument (called
tsubo (壷?) in Japanese) are named is not. As a consequence, tablature for each genre is written differently. For example, in
min'yo style shamisen, nodes on the shamisen are labeled from 0, the open string called "0". However, in
jiuta
style shamisen, nodes are subdivided and named by octave, with "1"
being the open string and first note in an octave, starting over at the
next octave. The nodes are also labeled differently for Tsugaru style
shamisen. To add to the confusion, sometimes nodes can be "sharped," and
since the names of nodes and their positions are different for each
genre, these will also vary. Consequently, students of one genre of
shamisen will find it difficult to read tablature from other genres of
shamisen, unless they are specially trained to read these kinds of
tablatures.
Tablature
can be written in traditional Japanese vertical right-to-left notation,
or it can be written in more modern horizontal left-to-right notation,
which resembles modern guitar tablature. In traditional vertical
notation, Chinese characters and older symbols for dynamics are used,
however notation from Western style music notation, such as Italian
names for dynamics,
time signature and the
fermata have been imported. What tuning a work calls for is usually indicated on the tablature.
History and genres
The Japanese
shamisen originated from the Chinese instrument
sanxian (
Chinese:
三弦).
[3][4][5][6] The
sanxian was introduced through the
Ryūkyū Kingdom (Okinawa) in the 16th century, where it developed into the Okinawan instrument
sanshin (
三線) from which the
shamisen ultimately derives.
[3][4][5][6][7] It is believed that the ancestor of the
shamisen was introduced in the sixteenth century at port Sakai near Osaka.
[5]
The shamisen can be played solo or with other shamisen, in ensembles with other Japanese instruments, with singing such as
nagauta, or as an accompaniment to drama, notably
kabuki and
bunraku. Both men and women traditionally played the shamisen.
The most famous and perhaps most demanding of the narrative styles is
gidayū, named after Takemoto Gidayū (1651–1714), who was heavily
involved in the
bunraku puppet-theater tradition in
Osaka.
The gidayū shamisen and its plectrum are the largest of the shamisen
family, and the singer-narrator is required to speak the roles of the
play, as well as to sing all the commentaries on the action. The
singer-narrator role is often so vocally taxing that the performers are
changed halfway through a scene. There is little notated in the books (
maruhon)
of the tradition except the words and the names of certain appropriate
generic shamisen responses. The shamisen player must know the entire
work perfectly in order to respond effectively to the interpretations of
the text by the singer-narrator. From the 19th century female
performers known as
onna-jōruri or
onna gidayū also carried on this concert tradition.
In the early part of the 20th century, blind musicians, including
Shirakawa Gunpachirō (1909–1962),
Takahashi Chikuzan (1910–1998), and sighted players such as
Kida Rinshōei (1911–1979), evolved a new style of playing, based on traditional folk songs ("
min'yō") but involving much
improvisation and flashy fingerwork. This style - now known as
Tsugaru-jamisen, after the home region of this style in the north of
Honshū - continues to be relatively popular in Japan. The virtuosic
Tsugaru-jamisen style is sometimes compared to
bluegrass banjo.
Kouta (小唄) is the style of song learned by
geisha and
maiko.
Its name literally means "small" or "short song," which contrasts with
the music genre found in bunraku and kabuki, otherwise known as
nagauta (long song).
Jiuta (地唄), or literally "earthen music" is a more classical style of shamisen music.
Shamisen in non-traditional genres
One contemporary shamisen player,
Takeharu Kunimoto, plays bluegrass music on the shamisen, having spent a year studying bluegrass at
East Tennessee State University and performing with a bluegrass band based there. Another player using the Tsugaru-jamisen in non-traditional genres is
Michihiro Sato, who plays
free improvisation on the instrument.
Japanese American jazz pianist
Glenn Horiuchi played shamisen in his performances and recordings.
A duo popular in Japan known as the
Yoshida Brothers
developed an energetic style of playing heavily influenced by fast
aggressive soloing that emphasizes speed and twang; which is usually
associated with rock music on the electric guitar.
Metal guitarist
Marty Friedman has often used a shamisen in his recordings to give a more exotic sound to his music.
[8]
Japanese extreme metal band
Zenithrash played shamisen and shakuhachi in their latest album to achieve the band's ideal of Japanized extreme metal.
[9]
Japanese rock musician
Gackt
opened his "Sixth Day Seventh Night" concerts in 2004 seated on stage
with a shamisen, joined by two musicians from his band, GacktJOB, also
playing shamisen.
[citation needed]
Japanese rock musician
Miyavi has also played the shamisen on various occasions, incorporating its use in albums and during
concerts (i.e. during the debut live of
superband S.K.I.N concert at the 2007
Anime Expo convention at
Long Beach, California on June 29, 2007).
[10]
American Tsugaru-jamisen player and guitarist
Kevin Kmetz leads a rock band called God of Shamisen, which is based in
Santa Cruz, California, and also plays the instrument with the band
Estradasphere.
[11]
Japanese traditional and jazz musician
Hiromitsu Agatsuma incorporates a diverse mix of genres into his music. He arranged several
jazz standards and other famous western songs for the shamisen on his latest album,
Agatsuma Plays Standards. His previous recordings displayed
funk,
electro music and traditional Japanese styles.
Shakuhachi
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Shakuhachi
A shakuhachi flute, blowing edge up.
- Left: top view, four holes.
- Right: bottom view, fifth hole.
|
The
shakuhachi (尺八?, pronounced [ɕakɯhatɕi]) is a
Japanese end-blown flute. It is traditionally made of
bamboo, but versions now exist in
ABS and
hardwoods. It was used by the monks of the
Fuke school of
Zen Buddhism in the practice of
suizen (吹禅?, blowing meditation). Its soulful sound made it popular in 1980s
pop music in the English-speaking world.
They are often made in the
minor pentatonic scale.
Overview
The name
shakuhachi means "1.8
shaku", referring to its size. It is a compound of two words:
- shaku (尺?) means "shaku", an archaic unit of width equal to 30.3 centimeters (0.994 English foot) and subdivided in ten subunits.
- hachi (八?) means "eight", here eight sun, or tenths of a shaku.
Thus, "shaku-hachi" means "one shaku eight sun" (almost 55
centimeters), the standard length of a shakuhachi. Other shakuhachi vary
in length from about 1.3 shaku up to 3.3 shaku. Although the sizes
differ, all are still referred to generically as "shakuhachi".
A shakuhachi showing its
utaguchi (歌口, blowing edge) and inlay
Shakuhachi are usually made from the root end of a
bamboo culm
and are extremely versatile instruments. Professional players can
produce virtually any pitch they wish from the instrument, and play a
wide repertoire of original
Zen music, ensemble music with
koto,
biwa, and
shamisen, folk music, jazz, and other modern pieces.
Much of the shakuhachi's subtlety (and player's skill) lies in its
rich tone colouring, and the ability for its variation. Different
fingerings,
embouchures and amounts of
meri
can produce notes of the same pitch, but with subtle or dramatic
differences in the tone colouring. Holes can be covered partially (1/3
covered, 1/2, 2/3, etc.) and pitch varied subtly or substantially by
changing the blowing angle. The
honkyoku pieces rely heavily on this aspect of the instrument to enhance their subtlety and depth.
Unlike a
recorder, where the player blows into a duct—a narrow airway over a block which is called a "
fipple"—and
thus has limited pitch control, the shakuhachi player blows as one
would blow across the top of an empty bottle (though the shakuhachi has a
sharp edge to blow against) and therefore has substantial pitch
control. The five finger holes are tuned to a
pentatonic scale with no half-tones, but using techniques called
meri and
kari,
in which the blowing angle is adjusted to bend the pitch downward and
upward, respectively, the player can bend each pitch as much as a whole
tone or more. Pitches may also be lowered by shading or partially
covering finger holes. Since most pitches can be achieved via several
different fingering or blowing techniques on the shakuhachi, the
timbre
of each possibility is taken into account when composing or playing.
The shakuhachi has a range of two full octaves (the lower is called
otsu, the upper,
kan) and a partial third octave (
dai-kan). The various octaves are produced using subtle variations of breath and
embouchure.
A 1.8 shakuhachi produces D4 (D above Middle C, 293.66 Hz) as its
fundamental—the lowest note it produces with all five finger holes
covered, and a normal blowing angle. In contrast, a 2.4 shakuhachi has a
fundamental of A3 (A below Middle C, 220 Hz). As the length increases,
the spacing of the finger holes also increases, stretching both fingers
and technique. Longer flutes often have offset finger holes, and very
long flutes are almost always custom made to suit individual players.
Some
honkyoku, in particular those of the Nezasaha (Kimpu-ryu) school are intended to be played on these longer flutes.
Due to the skill required, the time involved, and the range of
quality in materials to craft bamboo shakuhachi, one can expect to pay
from
USD
$300 to USD $5,000 for a new or used flute. Because each piece of
bamboo is unique, shakuhachi cannot be mass-produced, and craftsmen must
spend much time finding the correct bore shape for each individual
flute to result in correct pitch over all notes. Specimens of extremely
high quality, with valuable inlays, or of historical significance can
fetch USD $10,000 or more. Plastic or
PVC
shakuhachi have some advantages over their traditional bamboo
counterparts: they are light weight, extremely durable, nearly
impervious to heat and cold, and typically cost less than USD $100.
Shakuhachi made of wood are also available, typically costing less than
bamboo but more than synthetic materials. Nearly all players, however,
prefer bamboo, citing tonal qualities, aesthetics, and tradition.
History
Sketch of a
komuso (right) playing shakuhachi
The bamboo flute first came to
Japan from
China during the 6th century.
[1] The shakuhachi proper, however, is quite distinct from its
Chinese counterpart[2] – the result of centuries of isolated evolution in Japan.
During the medieval period, shakuhachi were most notable for their role in the
Fuke sect of Zen Buddhist monks, known as
komusō ("priests of nothingness," or "emptiness monks"), who used the shakuhachi as a spiritual tool. Their songs (called "
honkyoku") were paced according to the players' breathing and were considered meditation (
suizen) as much as music.
Travel around Japan was restricted by the
shogunate
at this time, but the Fuke sect managed to wrangle an exemption from
the Shogun, since their spiritual practice required them to move from
place to place playing the shakuhachi and begging for alms (one famous
song reflects this mendicant tradition, "Hi fu mi, hachi gaeshi", "One
two three, pass the alms bowl"). They persuaded the Shogun to give them
"exclusive rights" to play the instrument. In return, some were required
to spy for the shogunate, and the Shogun sent several of his own spies
out in the guise of Fuke monks as well. This was made easier by the
wicker baskets that the Fuke wore over their heads, a symbol of their
detachment from the world.
In response to these developments, several particularly difficult honkyoku pieces, e.g.,
Shika no tone,
became well-known as "tests": if you could play them, you were a real
Fuke. If you couldn't, you were probably a spy and might very well be
killed if you were in unfriendly territory.
Performer playing shakuhachi in 60th
Himeji oshiro festival,2009
With the
Meiji Restoration, beginning in 1868, the shogunate was abolished and so was the
Fuke
sect, in order to help identify and eliminate the shogun's holdouts.
The very playing of the shakuhachi was officially forbidden for a few
years. Non-Fuke folk traditions did not suffer greatly from this, since
the tunes could be played just as easily on another pentatonic
instrument. However, the honkyoku repertoire was known exclusively to
the Fuke sect and transmitted by repetition and practice, and much of it
was lost, along with many important documents.
When the
Meiji government did permit the playing of shakuhachi again, it was only as an accompanying instrument to the
koto,
shamisen, etc. It was not until later that honkyoku were allowed to be played publicly again as solo pieces.
Shakuhachi has traditionally been played almost exclusively by men in
Japan, although this situation is rapidly changing. Many teachers of
traditional shakuhachi music indicate that a majority of their students
are women. The 2004 Big Apple Shakuhachi Festival in New York City
hosted the first-ever concert of international women shakuhachi masters.
This Festival was organized and produced by Ronnie Nyogetsu Reishin
Seldin, who was the first full-time Shakuhachi master to teach in the
Western Hemisphere. Nyogetsu also holds 2 Dai Shihan (Grand Master)
Licenses, and has run KiSuiAn , the largest and most active Shakuhachi
Dojo outside Japan, since 1975.
The first non-Japanese person to become a shakuhachi master is the American-Australian
Riley Lee. Lee was responsible for the World Shakuhachi Festival being held in
Sydney,
Australia over 5–8 July 2008, based at the
Sydney Conservatorium of Music.
[3][4]
Recordings
The first shakuhachi recording to appear in the United States was
Bell Ringing in an Empty Sky, performed by
Gorō Yamaguchi for Nonesuch Explorer Records on LP.
New recordings of shakuhachi music are relatively plentiful,
especially on Japanese labels and increasingly so in North America,
Europe, and Australia. Although the instrument is sometimes considered
quaint and outdated in Japan, it is experiencing growth overseas.
The primary genres of shakuhachi music are
- honkyoku (traditional, solo),
- sankyoku (ensemble, with koto and shamisen), and
- shinkyoku (new music composed for shakuhachi and koto, commonly post-Meiji era compositions influenced by western music).
Shakuhachi are often used in modern film scores, particularly ones by
James Horner. Films in which it is featured prominently include:
Legends of the Fall and
Braveheart by
James Horner,
Jurassic Park and its sequels by
John Williams and
Don Davis, and
The Last Samurai by
Hans Zimmer and
Memoirs of a Geisha by
John Williams.
In the domain of contemporary music,
Carlo Forlivesi's composition for shakuhachi and guitar
Ugetsu
(雨月) is one of the most challenging works ever written for the
instrument. "The performance techniques present notable difficulties in a
few completely novel situations: an audacious movement of ‘expansion’
of the respective traditions of the two instruments pushed as they are
at times to the limits of the possible, the aim being to have the
shakuhachi and the guitar playing on the same level and with virtuosity
(two instruments that are culturally and acoustically so dissimilar),
thus increasing the expressive range, the texture of the dialogue, the
harmonic dimension and the tone-colour."
[5]
Synthesized shakuhachi
The
sound of the shakuhachi is also featured from time to time
in non-traditional non-Japanese music , from electronica to pop-rock to
jazz music, especially after being commonly shipped as a "preset"
instrument on various synthesizers and keyboards beginning in the 1980s.
[6]
Here is a short list of well-known tracks from various musical genres
where you can hear the sound of an electronic or emulated shakuhachi:
| Year |
Artist or band |
Album |
Song, range, notes |
| 1974 |
Tangerine Dream |
Phaedra |
"Sequent C'" [full 2:18 track] |
| 1983 |
Osamu Kitajima |
Face to Face |
"Tracks 2,3,5,7,9" [Tacoma Records TAK-7107] |
| 1985 |
Tangerine Dream |
Le Parc |
"Yellowstone Park" [0:00–0:05, 2:23–2:50] |
| 1985 |
Tangerine Dream |
Legend OST |
"Opening" [0:00–0:30] |
| 1985 |
Tangerine Dream |
Legend OST |
"Unicorn Theme" [0:00–0:10] |
| 1985 |
Dire Straits |
Brothers in Arms |
"Ride Across the River" [0:00-0:06] |
| 1985 |
Echo & the Bunnymen |
Songs to Learn & Sing |
"Bring On the Dancing Horses" [0:45-0:53 and in every chorus that follows] |
| 1985 |
Wang Chung |
To Live and Die in L.A. (OST) |
"Wake Up, Stop Dreaming" [???–???] |
| 1985 |
Tears for Fears |
Head Over Heels (single) |
"When in Love with a Blind Man" (b-side) [0:44-0:54, 1:32-1:36, 1:45-1:56] |
| 1986 |
Shriekback |
Oil and Gold |
"Coelocanth" [whole song] |
| 1986 |
Coil |
Horse Rotorvator |
"The First Five Minutes After Death" [1:15–1:45, 2:38–3:38, 4:30–end], morbid shakuhachi. |
| 1986 |
Peter Gabriel |
So |
"Sledgehammer" [0:00–0:16, 3:16–3:34] |
| 1987 |
Coil |
Gold Is the Metal |
"The First Five Minutes After Violent Death" [0:30–1:30, 2:45–3:45, etc., morbid shakuhachi. |
| 1987 |
Coil |
Unnatural History III |
"Music for Commercials": Liqueur [0:41–1:26] Natural Gas [03:15-04:00] |
| 1987 |
Roger Waters |
Radio K.A.O.S. |
"Me or Him" [0:09–0:22, 1:27–1:35, 2:06–2:20, etc.] |
| 1987 |
Rush |
Hold Your Fire |
"Tai Shan" |
| 1988 |
And Also the Trees |
The Millpond Years |
"The Sandstone Man" [0:33–0:39, 3:25–4:36] |
| 1988 |
Sade |
Stronger Than Pride |
"Love Is Stronger Than Pride" [0:28–0:33, 2:08–2:14, 2:28–2:33, 3:08–3:30, etc.] |
| 1989 |
The Sugarcubes
(Björk's ex-band) |
Here Today, Tomorrow, Next Week! |
"Pump" [2:06-2:22] |
| 1990 |
Enigma |
MCMXC a.D. |
"Sadeness (Principles of Lust, Part 1)" [1:14–1:54, 2:56–3:16] |
| 1991 |
Klaus Schulze |
Beyond Recall |
"Airlights" [0:00–0:05, 0:15–0:20, 0:40–0:50, 1:00–1:05, etc.] |
| 1992 |
Snap! |
Exterminate! |
"Exterminate! Feat. Nikki Harris" [2:20-2:52, etc.] |
| 1993 |
Dave Brubeck |
Late Night Brubeck |
"Koto Song" [4:30–9:50] - Bobby Militello's flute emulation |
| 1993 |
Future Sound of London |
Cascade |
"Cascade 1" [2:05–6:25] + "Cascade 6" [1:40–2:15], opener/closer tracks |
| 1994 |
Future Sound of London |
Lifeforms |
"Little Brother" [4:00-5:13(end)], closer track |
| 1994 |
Klaus Schulze as
Richard Wahnfried |
Trancelation |
"The End - Someday" [2:17–2:36] |
| 1995 |
Michael Bolton |
Greatest Hits (1985-1995) |
"Can I Touch You... There?" [0:00–0:04, 3:26–3:50, 4:24–5:07] |
| 1995 |
Juno Reactor |
Beyond the Infinite |
"Samurai" [scattered throughout] |
| 1996 |
Toshio Iwai |
SimTunes |
Piper, blue "bug" available voice, Low C3 to C5 |
| 1998 |
Symphony X |
Twilight in Olympus |
"Lady of the Snow" [0:00-0:26] |
| 2001 |
Incubus |
Morning View |
"Aqueous Transmission" and "Circles" |
| 2001 |
John Zorn |
The Gift |
"Samarkan" [1:17-6:39] actual instrument |
| 2003 |
Linkin Park |
Meteora |
"Nobody's Listening" [0:00–2:57] |
| 2004 |
Autumn Tears |
Eclipse |
"At a Distance" [0:32–0:56, 1:19–2:15, 2:37–3:04, 3:47–4:15] |
| 2010 |
Andrea Carri |
Partire |
"Dove Andremo?" [0:31–1:21] |
| 2011 |
Zenithrash |
Restoration Of The Samurai World |
"Ritual","Harakiri","The Samurai Metal" |
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